Food pelleting

Pelleted feeds have been defined as “agglomerated feeds formed by extruding individual ingredients or mixtures by compacting and forcing through die openings by any mechanical process”.

Pellets are generally formed between 0.3 – 1.5 mm, though other sizes could be prepared. The benefits of pelleting include enhanced handling characteristics of feeds and improved animal performance. Pelleting increases bulk density and flowability and decreases spillage and wind loss.

The process of producing feed pellets can roughly be described as a plastic molding operation of the extrusion type. Feed ingredients are made up of various compounds such as proteins, acids, sugars, fibers, and minerals.

Those ingredients which are of coarse texture, such as whole grains and other fibrous materials, are ground into a fine meal to facilitate the pelleting and mixing process. Rations containing raw protein produced dramatically stronger pellets than those containing denatured protein. Starch (raw or pregelatinized) had a minimal effect on pellet quality when pelleted with raw protein.

Weighted quantities of each ingredient (either as a batch or continuously) are thoroughly mixed (either in a batch mixer of a continuous flow mixing unit) and then conveyed to a bin above the pellet mill.

The pelleting process starts with a bin in which the mixture of mash is stored. The mash was fed through the hopper and is carried through the barrel length by the screw conveyor. Between the screw conveyor and the die is a space which allows for caking of the feed. The feed then passes through the die where the cylindrical shape of the pellets is formed.

The formation of the pellet actually occurs at the “nip” between the rolls and the die. All other activities associated with the operation such as conditioning, cooling, etc., really support and augment the action at that point in the system.

The hot, extruded mash (pellets) is held for three to six minutes while being cooled and dried by a flow of air.

The pelleting die is required to restrict the flow of feed material and provide the cylindrical shape of the pellet. The die plate had a thickness of 5 mm. The effective diameter of the die plate was 80 mm.

From the cooler, the product flows through or around a pair of crumble rolls. If we wish to produce a relatively fine product, about the size of cracked corn, then the pellets are passed between the crumble rolls to be crushed (cracked) to a smaller size.
Food pelleting

Beef cattle commercial production

Cattle farming involves rearing and management of two types of animals one group for food requirements like milk and another for labor purposes like ploughing, irrigation, etc.

Beef farming systems are remarkably diverse, ranging from suckler herds where home-bred calves are reared to sell as finished beef, to herds where cattle are purchased at any age from a week old, to be sold at any age from a few weeks to slaughter weight.

There are three main types of commercial beef cattle production systems:
* Cow-Calf Phase (Feeder Calf Production): the cow calf segment which produces weaned feeder calves for further grazing and/or feeding. Establishing a breeding herd takes time. It also requires more land.
* Backgrounding Phase: the backgrounding or stocker phase of production in which body weight is added to recently weaned calves, resulting in feedlot ready yearlings. A backgrounding or stocker operation typically pastures or feeds purchased weaned calves until they reach 750 to 800 pounds. Then they are sold to a feedlot for finishing.
* Finishing/Feedlot Phase: the finishing phase of production in which cattle are fattened for slaughter.

Factors that should be considered in choosing a suitable system include:
• The capacity of the land to support growth of grass, forage and cereals for cattle feed.
• Land area available.
• Winter housing available.
• Labor.
• Availability of cheap straw bedding.
• Other enterprises such as sheep-rearing and arable cropping.

The period of transition from the ranch to the feedlot is one of the most challenging times in a beef animal’s life from a welfare perspective. This is related to the multiple stressors that newly received calves and yearlings are exposed to prior to coming to the feedlot such as weaning (separation), castration and dehorning, branding, vaccination, handling, transport, potential mixing at an auction market, exposure to a new diet and a novel environment including pens, waterers, and feed bunks.

Feeds for cattle
Generally, cattle are fed a mixture of these feedstuffs in amount according to body size, physiological stage and purpose of feeding. Feedstuffs are categorized as concentrates or roughages. Concentrates are feedstuffs high in digestible nutrients, like grains and protein supplements. Roughages are feedstuffs that usually have a lower nutrient density and more fiber. Examples of roughages include hay, pasture, and silage. As a general rule, beef cattle consume up to 3 percent of bodyweight of good-quality feed (on a dry matter basis) per day.
Beef cattle commercial production

Mold in animal feeds

Mold growth can occur in any feed component. In many instances, grain used for animal feeds becomes contaminated with mold growth during storage, the molds producing toxic materials that cause disease in the animals to which the grain is fed.

Consumption by horses of grain growth with Fusarium can lead to leukoencephalomalacia, resulting in central nervous systems damages and death.

Cottonseed meal a product often contaminated with high level of aflatoxin is banned for use as animal feed to protect both the animals and consumers from aflatoxin.

It was recognized that food can become contaminated with aflatoxin-producing mold in the field. The mold grows on susceptible crops as the plants mature.

Chronic consumption, especially by people who consume heavily contaminated grains during food shortages, is associated who liver cancer, especially in populations predisposed by alcoholism and hepatitis B.
Mold in animal feeds